[119] The Ancient Egyptians were the first to use lead minerals in cosmetics, an application that spread to Ancient Greece and beyond;[120] the Egyptians may have used lead for sinkers in fishing nets, glazes, glasses, enamels, and for ornaments. Looking for a package? [74], Some lead compounds exist in formal oxidation states other than +4 or +2. Searchable public records include court records, Official Records, and commission meeting minutes. When the pencil originated as a wrapped graphite writing tool, the particular type of graphite used was named plumbago (literally, act for lead or lead mockup). Companies use the price-to-book ratio (P/B ratio) to compare a firm's market capitalization to its book value. [129] Lead was used to make sling bullets from the 5th century BC. Almost all inhaled lead is absorbed into the body; for ingestion, the rate is 20–70%, with children absorbing a higher percentage than adults. Typically they are removed in a series of pyrometallurgical processes. [269] Acute cases may require the use of disodium calcium edetate, the calcium chelate, and the disodium salt of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA). A similar fashion appeared in Japan in the 18th century with the emergence of the geishas, a practice that continued long into the 20th century. [225] Its use in solder for electronics is also being phased out by some countries to reduce the amount of environmentally hazardous waste. [117][127] Lead mining occurred in Central Europe, Britain, the Balkans, Greece, Anatolia, and Hispania, the latter accounting for 40% of world production. The rate of skin absorption is lower for inorganic lead. [235][236] Lead glass is composed of 12–28% lead oxide, changing its optical characteristics and reducing the transmission of ionizing radiation. [293] Lead is released to the wildlife in shooting places and a number of lead management practices, such as stewardship of the environment and reduced public scrutiny, have been developed to counter the lead contamination. BOXpoll, for the new age of ecommerce logistics. The United Kingdom introduced mandatory factory inspections in 1878 and appointed the first Medical Inspector of Factories in 1898; as a result, a 25-fold decrease in lead poisoning incidents from 1900 to 1944 was reported. [205] In 1993, the base of the Leaning Tower of Pisa was stabilized with 600 tonnes of lead. [141][142] According to archaeological research, Roman lead pipes increased lead levels in tap water but such an effect was "unlikely to have been truly harmful". "Lead: properties, history, and applications" (PDF). [202], Lead has been used for bullets since their invention in the Middle Ages. Lead tetrachloride (a yellow oil) decomposes at room temperature, lead tetrabromide is less stable still, and the existence of lead tetraiodide is questionable. [192][193] Metallic silver and gold are removed and recovered economically by means of the Parkes process, in which zinc is added to lead. Latest Library Collection. It is a heavy metal that is denser than most common materials. [119] Various civilizations of the Fertile Crescent used lead as a writing material, as currency, and as a construction material. With SendPro Online, print postage online for mailing and shipping even when working remotely with plans starting at $4.99/mo. [233][234] It can be used to treat candle wicks to ensure a longer, more even burn. [295], Research has been conducted on how to remove lead from biosystems by biological means: Fish bones are being researched for their ability to bioremediate lead in contaminated soil. [251] High levels of calcium and iron tend to provide some protection from lead poisoning; low levels cause increased susceptibility. [193], Alternatively to the pyrometallurgical processes, very pure lead can be obtained by processing smelted lead electrolytically using the Betts process. Culture. [224], Lead is used in high voltage power cables as sheathing material to prevent water diffusion into insulation; this use is decreasing as lead is being phased out. The tetrahedral allotrope of tin is called α- or gray tin and is stable only at or below 13.2 °C (55.8 °F). Educational games and videos from Curious George, Wild Kratts and other PBS KIDS shows! Pitney Bowes is a global logistics services provider for major marketplaces and retailers. Some primary production plants now supplement their operations with scrap lead, and this trend is likely to increase in the future. [101] It tends to stop once neutron-rich nuclei reach 126 neutrons. [291], Lead waste, depending on the jurisdiction and the nature of the waste, may be treated as household waste (to facilitate lead abatement activities),[292] or potentially hazardous waste requiring specialized treatment or storage. Looking for a package? There are two main ways of doing this: a two-stage process involving roasting followed by blast furnace extraction, carried out in separate vessels; or a direct process in which the extraction of the concentrate occurs in a single vessel. [221]} The reactions in the battery between lead, lead dioxide, and sulfuric acid provide a reliable source of voltage. [254], In a child's developing brain, lead interferes with synapse formation in the cerebral cortex, neurochemical development (including that of neurotransmitters), and the organization of ion channels. [103] When the neutron flux subsides, these nuclei beta decay into stable isotopes of osmium, iridium, and platinum. [268], Treatment for lead poisoning normally involves the administration of dimercaprol and succimer. Lead(III) may be obtained, as an intermediate between lead(II) and lead(IV), in larger organolead complexes; this oxidation state is not stable, as both the lead(III) ion and the larger complexes containing it are radicals. This is the official Point Blank website. [79], Numerous mixed lead(II,IV) oxides are known. [201], Lead metal has several useful mechanical properties, including high density, low melting point, ductility, and relative inertness. The lead sulfide concentrate is melted in a furnace and oxidized, forming lead monoxide. [70] This is because the expected PbCl4 that would be produced is unstable and spontaneously decomposes to PbCl2 and Cl2. Our staff focuses on providing the utmost quality in food and service. An even number of either protons or neutrons generally increases the nuclear stability of isotopes, compared to isotopes with odd numbers. [265], Ingestion of applied lead-based paint is the major source of exposure for children: This article was submitted to WikiJournal of Science for external academic peer review in 2019 (reviewer reports). This is the official Point Blank website. Curbside pickup available [188], First, the sulfide concentrate is roasted in air to oxidize the lead sulfide:[189], As the original concentrate was not pure lead sulfide, roasting yields not only the desired lead(II) oxide, but a mixture of oxides, sulfates, and silicates of lead and of the other metals contained in the ore.[190] This impure lead oxide is reduced in a coke-fired blast furnace to the (again, impure) metal:[191], Impurities are mostly arsenic, antimony, bismuth, zinc, copper, silver, and gold. [110], Lead is added to copper alloys, such as brass and bronze, to improve machinability and for its lubricating qualities. [212], Lead's high density, atomic number, and formability form the basis for use of lead as a barrier that absorbs sound, vibration, and radiation. Access invoices and other financial details, handle support and more. In addition to being the main application for lead metal, lead-acid batteries are also the main consumer of lead compounds. [187] During initial processing, ores typically undergo crushing, dense-medium separation, grinding, froth flotation, and drying. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMeijaCoplenBerglundBrand2016 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFIAEA_–_Nuclear_Data_Section2017 (, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, a problem in areas with soft or acidic water, Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive, University of California Nuclear Forensic Search Project, Committee on Evaluation of EPA Guidelines for Exposure to Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials et al. This causes ineffective heme synthesis and microcytic anemia. 1 (2): 7. doi:10.15347/WJS/2018.007. [237] Lead-based semiconductors such as lead telluride and lead selenide are used in photovoltaic cells and infrared detectors. [207], Lead has many uses in the construction industry; lead sheets are used as architectural metals in roofing material, cladding, flashing, gutters and gutter joints, and on roof parapets. [115], The name of the chemical element is not related to the verb of the same spelling, which is derived from Proto-Germanic *laidijan- ("to lead"). In the second half of the 18th century, Britain, and later continental Europe and the United States, experienced the Industrial Revolution. It degrades the myelin sheaths of neurons, reduces their numbers, interferes with neurotransmission routes, and decreases neuronal growth. White tin effectively has a structure intermediate between the regular tetrahedral structure of gray tin, and the regular face centered cubic structure of lead, consistent with the general trend of increasing metallic character going down any representative group. Chronic, high-level exposure has been shown to reduce fertility in males. [109], World lead resources exceed two billion tons. Plumbane may be obtained in a reaction between metallic lead and atomic hydrogen. [273], Lead can accumulate in soils, especially those with a high organic content, where it remains for hundreds to thousands of years. Client Connect is the centralized destination to manage your Global Ecommerce account with Pitney Bowes. [266], Inhalation is the second major exposure pathway, affecting smokers and especially workers in lead-related occupations. Grow with a financial partner that knows you. Further captures result in lead-206, lead-207, and lead-208. Much of this is in more developed countries (20–150 kg per capita) rather than less developed ones (1–4 kg per capita). [193][194] De-silvered lead is freed of bismuth by the Betterton–Kroll process, treating it with metallic calcium and magnesium. ", "Human Activity Has Polluted European Air for 2000 Years", "The detrimental effects of lead on human and animal health", Toxic Substances: A Half Century of Progress, "Oddy Tests: Adding the Analytical Dimension", "Blood Lead Levels and Major Depressive Disorder, Panic Disorder, and Generalized Anxiety Disorder in US Young Adults", "Interior secretary repeals ban on lead bullets", "Did removing lead from petrol spark a decline in crime? [284] A large drop in lead deposition occurred in the Netherlands after the 1993 national ban on use of lead shot for hunting and sport shooting: from 230 tonnes in 1990 to 47.5 tonnes in 1995. Wikidata Q56050531. Pottery Barn’s expertly crafted collections offer a widerange of stylish indoor and outdoor furniture, accessories, decor and more, for every room in your home. [84] With carbon, lead forms organolead compounds similar to, but generally less stable than, typical organic compounds[85] (due to the Pb–C bond being rather weak). Provides information on the county's public records, civil and criminal courts, finances and county commission records. [198] The ISASMELT process is a more recent smelting method that may act as an extension to primary production; battery paste from spent lead–acid batteries (containing lead sulfate and lead oxides) has its sulfate removed by treating it with alkali, and is then treated in a coal-fueled furnace in the presence of oxygen, which yields impure lead, with antimony the most common impurity. Global reserves—resources that are economically feasible to extract—totaled 88 million tons in 2016, of which Australia had 35 million, China 17 million, and Russia 6.4 million. The PB (Russian: Пистолет Бесшумный, romanized: Pistolet Besshumnyy, lit. Simplify shipping decisions and reduce complexity. The use of such wine was forbidden for use in Christian rites by a papal bull in 1498, but it continued to be imbibed and resulted in mass poisonings up to the late 18th century. Lead was to the Romans what plastic is to us. ( computing , informal ) pebibyte ( 2 10 (1024) tebibytes or 2 50 (1024 5 ) bytes ) . Please find our official game information, Game Download, FAQ, RANK and events details. [91] Tetraethyllead, once added to gasoline, was produced in larger quantities than any other organometallic compound. [188], Research on a cleaner, less energy-intensive lead extraction process continues; a major drawback is that either too much lead is lost as waste, or the alternatives result in a high sulfur content in the resulting lead metal. [117], Lead tablets were commonly used as a material for letters. © 2016 Hitachi ID Systems, Inc.Hitachi ID Systems, Inc. JUKEBOX. [272] In 1992, U.S. Congress required the Environmental Protection Agency to reduce the blood lead levels of the country's children. [188] Metallic lead is further obtained from the high-lead (25–40%) slags via submerged fuel combustion or injection, reduction assisted by an electric furnace, or a combination of both. Lead is frequently used in the polyvinyl chloride coating of electrical cords. The word *ɸloud-io- is thought to be the origin of Proto-Germanic *bliwa- (which also means "lead"), from which stemmed the German Blei. [179] The share of the world's lead production by the Eastern Bloc increased from 10% to 30%, from 1950 to 1990, with the Soviet Union being the world's largest producer during the mid-1970s and the 1980s, and China starting major lead production in the late 20th century. Lead disulfide[72] and lead diselenide[73] are only stable at high pressures. [260] Seawater products can contain lead if affected by nearby industrial waters. [t] Supercapacitors incorporating lead–acid batteries have been installed in kilowatt and megawatt scale applications in Australia, Japan, and the United States in frequency regulation, solar smoothing and shifting, wind smoothing, and other applications. ©1996-2021 Pitney Bowes Inc. All rights reserved. $79.95 $ 79. a direct source is chewing on old painted window sills. [229] While lead paints are phased out in Europe and North America, they remain in use in less developed countries such as China,[230] India,[231] or Indonesia. The PB (Russian: Пистолет Бесшумный, romanized: Pistolet Besshumnyy, lit. [113], There is no consensus on the origin of the Proto-Germanic *lauda-. (3 July 2018). [159] Despite being more expensive than iron, lead also became the chief material for making bullets for firearms. [153], In Europe, lead production began to increase in the 11th and 12th centuries, when it was again used for roofing and piping. Play games with your PBS KIDS favorites like Curious George, Wild Kratts, Daniel Tiger and Peg + Cat! The lead monoxide is thereby reduced to metallic lead, in the midst of a slag rich in lead monoxide. On capturing another neutron, bismuth-209 becomes bismuth-210, and this beta decays to polonium-210, which alpha decays to lead-206. Start here to receive tracking events and carrier information. [96], In the s-process (s is for "slow"), captures are separated by years or decades, allowing less stable nuclei to undergo beta decay. Drinking such water, over time, can cause health problems due to the toxicity of the dissolved lead. [244], Lead can cause severe damage to the brain and kidneys and, ultimately, death. What Is the Price-To-Book (P/B Ratio)? 1999, Gill & Libraries Board of South Australia 1974, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 1997, United States Environmental Protection Agency 2010, California Department of Fish and Wildlife, National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements 2004, United States Food and Drug Administration 2015, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Occupational Safety and Health Administration, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2015, United Nations Environment Programme 2010, Deltares & Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research 2016, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry 2017, United States Environmental Protection Agency 2000, United States Environmental Protection Agency 2005, "Lead: properties, history, and applications", "Information for the Community: Lead Toxicity", "Lead Toxicity. [214] Organ pipes are often made from a lead alloy, mixed with various amounts of tin to control the tone of each pipe. Power 2020 Certified Assisted Technical Support Program was developed in conjunction with TSIA and based on successful completion of an audit and exceeding a customer satisfaction benchmark for assisted support operations. The neutron flux involved may be on the order of 1022 neutrons per square centimeter per second. Secondary lead production is therefore cheaper, in terms of energy requirements, than is primary production, often by 50% or more.[186]. [177] The main product made of lead by the end of the 20th century was the lead–acid battery. [298] Several bacteria have been researched for their ability to remove lead from the environment, including the sulfate-reducing bacteria Desulfovibrio and Desulfotomaculum, both of which are highly effective in aqueous solutions.[299]. [92][l] This figure is two and a half times higher than that of platinum, eight times more than mercury, and seventeen times more than gold. When PbO2 is heated in air, it becomes Pb12O19 at 293 °C, Pb12O17 at 351 °C, Pb3O4 at 374 °C, and finally PbO at 605 °C. [219], The largest use of lead in the early 21st century is in lead–acid batteries. [82] In such anions, each atom is at a polyhedral vertex and contributes two electrons to each covalent bond along an edge from their sp3 hybrid orbitals, the other two being an external lone pair. It was less damaging to iron gun barrels, had a higher density (which allowed for better retention of velocity), and its lower melting point made the production of bullets easier as they could be made using a wood fire. Lead poisoning and gout were linked; British physician Alfred Baring Garrod noted a third of his gout patients were plumbers and painters. [172] Most European countries banned lead paint—commonly used because of its opacity and water resistance[173]—for interiors by 1930. Navigate the complexities of shipping with our 2020 Office Shipping Guide. This word is related to the Latin plumbum, which gave the element its chemical symbol Pb. [119] Lead was used in the Ancient Chinese royal court as a stimulant,[119] as currency,[121] and as a contraceptive;[122] the Indus Valley civilization and the Mesoamericans[119] used it for making amulets; and the eastern and southern African peoples used lead in wire drawing. The stable form of tin above this temperature is called β- or white tin and has a distorted face centered cubic (tetragonal) structure which can be derived by compressing the tetrahedra of gray tin along their cubic axes. Lead is a chemical element with the symbol Pb (from the Latin plumbum) and atomic number 82. [130], Lead was used for making water pipes in the Roman Empire; the Latin word for the metal, plumbum, is the origin of the English word "plumbing". [250] Among the essential metals that lead interacts with are calcium, iron, and zinc. This metal was by far the most used material in classical antiquity, and it is appropriate to refer to the (Roman) Lead Age. "Lead sling bullet; almond shape; a winged thunderbolt on one side and on the other, in high relief, the inscription DEXAI "Catch! Many of them show defective fluorite structures in which some oxygen atoms are replaced by vacancies: PbO can be considered as having such a structure, with every alternate layer of oxygen atoms absent. [271] Elevated concentrations of lead persist in soils and sediments in post-industrial and urban areas; industrial emissions, including those arising from coal burning,[272] continue in many parts of the world, particularly in the developing countries. [118] At that time lead had few (if any) applications due to its softness and dull appearance.